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<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">akusherstvo</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproduction</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Акушерство, Гинекология и Репродукция</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2313-7347</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2500-3194</issn><publisher><publisher-name>IRBIS LLC</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.17749/2313-7347/ob.gyn.rep.2025.679</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">akusherstvo-2608</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>ОRIGINAL ARTICLES</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ОРИГИНАЛЬНЫЕ СТАТЬИ</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Azoospermia: etiology, pathogenesis, prevalence of forms and algorithm for differential diagnostics</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Азооспермия: этиология, патогенез, распространенность форм и алгоритм дифференциальной диагностики</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4696-9290</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Иванов</surname><given-names>Н. В.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Ivanov</surname><given-names>N. V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Иванов Никита Владимирович, к.м.н.</p><p>Scopus Author ID: 57221190481.</p><p>WoS ResearcherID: JRZ-0207-2023. </p><p>191015 Санкт-Петербург, Кирочная ул., д 41</p><p>Республика Узбекистан, 170127 Андижан, ул. Атабекова, д. 1</p><p>Россия, 197227 Санкт-Петербург, ул. Гаккелевская, д. 33, корп. 1</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Nikita V. Ivanov, MD, PhD</p><p>Scopus Author ID: 57221190481</p><p>WoS ResearcherID: JRZ-0207-2023</p><p>41 Kirochnaya Str., Saint Petersburg 191015</p><p>1 Atabekov Str., Andijan 170127, Republic of Uzbekistan</p><p>33 bldg. 1, Gakkelevskaya Str., Saint Petersburg 197227</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">baltic.forum@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0000-1718-0157</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Амандуллаев</surname><given-names>К. З.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Amandullaev</surname><given-names>K. Z.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Амандуллаев Комолиддин Зикиряевич </p><p>100020 Ташкент, ул. Кукча-Дарвоза, 42а</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Komoliddin Z. Amandullaev, MD.</p><p>42a Kukcha-Darvoza Str., Tashkent 100020</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5641-9239</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Юсупова</surname><given-names>Ш. К.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Yusupova</surname><given-names>Sh. K.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Юсупова Шахноза Кадиржановна, д.м.н.</p><p>Scopus Author ID: 59418272100.</p><p>WoS ResearcherID: AEX-6726-2022.</p><p>170127 Андижан, ул. Атабекова, д. 1</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Shakhnоza K. Yusupova, MD, Dr Sci Med.</p><p>Scopus Author ID: 59418272100</p><p>WoS ResearcherID: AEX-6726-2022</p><p>1 Atabekov Str., Andijan 170127</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-3"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2397-1312</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Выходцев</surname><given-names>С. В.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Vykhodtsev</surname><given-names>S. V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Выходцев Сергей Владимирович, к.м.н. </p><p>WoS ResearcherID: O-7426-2014. </p><p>191015 Санкт-Петербург, Кирочная ул., д 41</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Sergei V. Vykhodtsev, MD, PhD</p><p>WoS ResearcherID: O-7426-2014</p><p>41 Kirochnaya Str., Saint Petersburg 191015</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-4"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0006-0315-922X</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Медведева</surname><given-names>Е. В.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Medvedeva</surname><given-names>E. V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Медведева Екатерина Владимировна </p><p>197227 Санкт-Петербург, ул. Гаккелевская, д. 33, корп. 1</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ekaterina V. Medvedeva</p><p>33 bldg. 1, Gakkelevskaya Str., Saint Petersburg 197227</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-5"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>ФГБОУ ВО «Северо-Западный государственный медицинский университет имени И.И. Мечникова» Министерства здравоохранения Российской Федерации; Андижанский государственный медицинский институт; АО группа компаний «Медси»</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Mechnikov North-Western State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation; Andijan State Medical Institute; Medsi Group of Companies JSC</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff-2"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>ООО «Генотехнология Ташкент»</institution><country>Узбекистан</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Genotechnology LLC</institution><country>Uzbekistan</country></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff-3"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Андижанский государственный медицинский институт</institution><country>Узбекистан</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Andijan State Medical Institute</institution><country>Uzbekistan</country></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff-4"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>ФГБОУ ВО «Северо-Западный государственный медицинский университет имени И.И. Мечникова» Министерства здравоохранения Российской Федерации</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Mechnikov North-Western State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff-5"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>АО группа компаний «Медси»</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Medsi Group of Companies JSC</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>19</day><month>01</month><year>2026</year></pub-date><volume>19</volume><issue>6</issue><elocation-id>860–874</elocation-id><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Ivanov N.V., Amandullaev K.Z., Yusupova S.K., Vykhodtsev S.V., Medvedeva E.V., 2026</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2026</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Иванов Н.В., Амандуллаев К.З., Юсупова Ш.К., Выходцев С.В., Медведева Е.В.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Ivanov N.V., Amandullaev K.Z., Yusupova S.K., Vykhodtsev S.V., Medvedeva E.V.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://www.gynecology.su/jour/article/view/2608">https://www.gynecology.su/jour/article/view/2608</self-uri><abstract><sec><title>Introduction</title><p>Introduction. Azoospermia, defined as the absence of spermatozoa in the ejaculate after centrifugation, is one of the leading causes of male infertility, affecting approximately 1,0 % of men in the general population and up to 15,0 % of infertile patients. Timely differentiation between obstructive (ОА) and non-obstructive (NOA) azoospermia is critical for selecting appropriate treatment strategies, determining prognosis, and applying assisted reproductive technologies (ART).</p></sec><sec><title>Aim</title><p>Aim: to investigate the prevalence of different azoospermia forms of azoospermia in infertile men, within the context of real-world clinical practice at a non-specialized endocrine outpatient department, including personal observations, with consideration of/in comparison with the results of international and Russian epidemiological studies.</p></sec><sec><title>Materials and Methods</title><p>Materials and Methods. A comprehensive analysis of literature, clinical guidelines, and original data was performed. The study included 450 men aged 25–45 years with confirmed azoospermia. All patients underwent a comprehensive examination, including collection of anamnesis (reproductive, somatic, surgical); physical examination with assessment of secondary sexual characteristics, size and consistency of the testicles; double examination of ejaculate (centrifugation, microscopy); examination of blood hormone levels (follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, total testosterone, prolactin, anti-Müllerian hormone, sex hormone-binding globulin, inhibin B; if indicated – estradiol, thyroid-stimulating hormone, thyroxine); scrotum ultrasound examination with Doppler ultrasonography; genetic testing – karyotyping, testing for microdeletions of Y chromosome azoospermia factor (AZF) of the Y chromosome, CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) gene testing; when indicated, testicular sperm extraction (TESE) biopsy was performed.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>Results. NOA and OA were identified in 63.3 % and 30 % of patients, respectively. Among NOA cases, the leading causes were idiopathic forms (19.6 %), Klinefelter syndrome (8.4 %), Y-chromosome microdeletions (5.8 %), and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (6.7 %). Varicocele was associated with NOA in 12 % of cases. These findings are consistent with global data, although minor ethnic and methodological differences were observed.</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusion</title><p>Conclusion. Azoospermia is a clinically and etiologically heterogeneous condition. Timely differentiation between its forms and the inclusion of genetic testing improve diagnostic accuracy and help optimizing management strategies. Standardization of diagnostic algorithms and a personalized approach increase ART effectiveness and the likelihood of fertility restoration.</p></sec></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><sec><title>Введение</title><p>Введение. Азооспермия, определяемая как отсутствие сперматозоидов в эякуляте после центрифугирования, является одной из ведущих причин мужского бесплодия, встречаясь примерно у 1,0 % мужчин в общей популяции и до 15,0 % у пациентов с нарушением фертильности. Дифференциация обструктивной (ОА) и необструктивной (НОА) азооспермии имеет критическое значение для выбора тактики лечения, прогнозирования исходов и планирования применения вспомогательных репродуктивных технологий (ВРТ).</p></sec><sec><title>Цель</title><p>Цель: изучить распространенность различных форм азооспермии у мужчин с бесплодием в условиях реальной клинической практики неспециализированного эндокринологического амбулаторно-поликлинического отделения в сравнении с результатами международных и российских эпидемиологических исследований.</p></sec><sec><title>Материалы и методы</title><p>Материалы и методы. Проанализированы литературные данные, клинические руководства и результаты собственного исследования, включающего 450 мужчин с азооспермией в возрасте 25–45 лет. Всем пациентам проводилось комплексное обследование, включавшее сбор анамнеза (репродуктивного, соматического, хирургического); физикальное обследование с оценкой вторичных половых признаков, размеров и консистенции яичек; двукратное исследование эякулята (центрифугирование, микроскопия); исследование содержания в крови гормонов (фолликулостимулирующего гормона, лютеинизирующего гормона, общего тестостерона, пролактина, антимюллерова гормона, глобулина, связывающего половые гормоны, ингибина В; по показаниям – эстрадиола, тиреотропного гормона, тироксина); ультразвуковое исследование (УЗИ) органов мошонки с доплерографией; генетическое обследование – кариотипирование, тестирование на микроделеции фактора азооспермии (англ. azoospermia factor, AZF) Y-хромосомы, исследование гена CFTR (англ. cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator; трансмембранный регулятор муковисцидоза); при показаниях проводилась биопсия яичек (англ. testicular sperm extraction, TESE).</p></sec><sec><title>Результаты</title><p>Результаты. НОА выявлена у 63,3 % пациентов, ОА – у 30 %. Среди причин НОА преобладали идиопатические формы (19,6 %), синдром Клайнфельтера (8,4 %), Y-микроделеции (5,8 %) и гипогонадотропный гипогонадизм (6,7 %). Варикоцеле сочеталось с НОА у 12 % мужчин. Полученные данные соответствуют международным тенденциям, выявлены незначительные этнические и методологические различия.</p></sec><sec><title>Заключение</title><p>Заключение. Азооспермия представляет собой клинически и этиологически гетерогенное состояние. Своевременная дифференциация форм и включение генетического тестирования позволяют повысить точность диагностики и оптимизировать выбор лечебной тактики. Стандартизация алгоритмов обследования и персонализированный подход обеспечивают повышение эффективности ВРТ и вероятность восстановления фертильности.</p></sec></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>азооспермия</kwd><kwd>мужское бесплодие</kwd><kwd>обструктивная азооспермия</kwd><kwd>ОА</kwd><kwd>необструктивная азооспермия</kwd><kwd>НОА</kwd><kwd>гипогонадизм</kwd><kwd>синдром Клайнфельтера</kwd><kwd>микроделеции хромосомы Y</kwd><kwd>гипогонадотропный гипогонадизм</kwd><kwd>варикоцеле</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>azoospermia</kwd><kwd>male infertility</kwd><kwd>obstructive azoospermia</kwd><kwd>ОА</kwd><kwd>non-obstructive azoospermia</kwd><kwd>NOA</kwd><kwd>hypogonadism</kwd><kwd>Klinefelter syndrome</kwd><kwd>Y chromosome microdeletions</kwd><kwd>hypogonadotropic hypogonadism</kwd><kwd>varicocele</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">WHO laboratory manual for the examination and processing of human semen. 6th ed. 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